The concept of monotheistic Brahman, or the idea of a single, ultimate reality that is the source of all existence, is a key philosophical development that is most fully explored and defined in the Upanishads. While the Vedas do contain the seeds of this idea, the Upanishads mark a significant shift in focus and a much more explicit articulation of the concept.
The Vedas
The early parts of the Vedas, particularly the Rigveda, are primarily concerned with a pantheon of gods (such as Indra, Agni, and Varuna) who are worshipped through rituals and sacrifices. While this is often seen as polytheistic, there are hymns, particularly in the later parts of the Rigveda, that show a move toward a more unified view. For instance, a famous verse states, “EkamSatVipraBahudhaVadanti” (“Truth is one, though the sages call it by many names”). This suggests a recognition of a single reality behind the various deities. The term Brahman in the Vedas initially referred to the power inherent in the ritual, the sound, and the sacred words themselves. It was an impersonal force associated with the rituals and prayers.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads, which are considered the concluding part of the Vedas (and are therefore also called Vedanta), represent a profound philosophical and spiritual shift. They move away from the external focus on rituals and sacrifices and turn inward, exploring the nature of reality and the self.
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Explicit Monotheism: The Upanishads are where the concept of Brahman is fully developed into an all-encompassing, ultimate reality. Brahman is no longer just a power of the ritual; it is the ultimate cause and substance of the universe. It is described as being formless, infinite, and beyond all attributes and forms (NirgunaBrahman), yet it is also the source of all manifestation.
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The Identity of Atman and Brahman: The most significant contribution of the Upanishads is the famous insight that the individual soul (Atman) is, at its deepest level, identical to the universal reality (Brahman). This is famously expressed in phrases like “TatTvamAsi” (“Thou Art That”). The goal of life, according to the Upanishads, is to realize this non-duality and achieve liberation (Moksha).